Confucianism

2.2 The Religious Traditions of China
2.2.1 Confucianism
Historical Aspects
The term Confucianism is the western designation of a Chinese tradition that goes back to Confucius, the Latinized version of the Chinese name Kongzi (􀥤􁈰).
Confucius was most probably born in the year 551 or 552 BCE. Although his historical existence is not questioned, information about his family and biography are rather sparse. As is the case for Jesus, Buddha and Laozi, we find many legends that give detailed information about the life of Confucius, yet these legends cannot be historically supported or confirmed. It is said that Confucius was born in a place near today’s city of Qufu, in the province of Shandong. His family was most likely impoverished aristocracy. At a very young age Confucius became a teacher and later gathered around him about 30 close followers. He always sought to become a trusted adviser for one of the kings, but never reached his career goal. He apparently held one or two government posts, but they were of rather low status.
The fame of Confucius and his teaching, which later constituted one of the most
influential traditions in China, was not due to the fact that it was revolutionary or new.
On the contrary, it was Confucius’ goal to reestablish the ideal state of former times.
This ideal state was believed to have existed during the first half of the Zhou dynasty
(around 1050- 770 BCE). Through this reference to the past, Confucius gained a
certain legitimacy. He saw himself as a reformer of a lost and forgotten harmony, and
it is therefore not surprising that Confucius himself did not write any new works.
Confucius said of himself:
“ The Master said, ‘I transmit but do not innovate; I am truthful in what I say and
devoted to antiquity.” (The Analects, 7.1, transl. Lao 1979, 87)
Confucius emphasized the importance of studying and knowing old texts. It is said he
studied thoroughly and partly edited the 5 books later called the “Five Classics”
(wujing 􀻴􀣜). These five classics were the Classic of Change (Yijing) a manual of
divination; the Classic of Odes (Shijing), a collection of poems and songs; the book of
historical documents (Shujing), a collection of official statements and documents form
the early dynasties of Xia, Shang and Zhou; and the Spring and Autumn Annals, which
are at least partly attributed to Confucius. The fifth classic comprised three works (Yili,
Zhouli, Liji) describing rituals of the Zhou courts and further aspects of the three sage
kings that reigned in the Zhou dynasty. The well-known ‘Doctrine of the Mean’,
which is said to have been written by the grandson of Confucius, is part of the Liji. It
focuses on the wise man who manages to always find the middle path.
Confucius’ personal teachings were later recorded by his students in the Analects, the
lunyu 􀀉􀪂􁃔), a rather thin book of twenty chapters where Confucius’ main ideas were
collected in the form of conversations. In his teachings he emphasized aspects like ren
(􀲥), which can be translated as humanity or benevolence; li (􀧜), which is best
translated with ritual propriety; xiao (􀽭) the filial piety; and junzi (􀤬􁈰), meaning a
superior person in respect of his moral character. These aspects will be discussed in
more detail when we look at the core values in Confucianism.
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Another important person in Confucian history, and without whom the teaching of
Confucius might have been lost, was Mencius (372-289 BCE)21. His ideas were also
recorded by his students, but the records are more detailed and reliable than the ones
in the analects. Mencius seemed to have more students than Confucius, and he was
hired by several local rulers as a consultant. Mencius main ideas focused on “human
government” and “human nature”. In his theories, Mencius parted from the idea that
‘human nature’ is basically good, and that education only had to support and develop
this good nature, which after Mencius could be found in every human being, even in
criminals22. Basing his teachings on ideas already expressed by Confucius, Mencius
gave a more sophisticated elaboration on how a state should be governed. Basically
‘human government’ implied that a ruler behaved towards its people like a father to
his children (Adler 2002, 37).
Although the ideas of Confucius and Mencius got their response in the intellectual
world, Confucianism failed to establish itself as a major school for another 200 years.
Only when in the emperor Wudi, who reigned from 140 to 87 BCE, decided to favor
Confucian ideas over Daoism, did the Confucianism influence in Chinese history and
society start to unfold. Wudi was strongly influenced by one of the most important
philosophers of the Han dynasty, Dong Zhongshu (􀗬􁇘􀵽). Dong Zhongshu wrote a
commentary to the 􀀴􀁑􀁓􀁊􀁏􀁈􀀁􀁂􀁏􀁅􀀁􀀢􀁖􀁕􀁖􀁎􀁏􀀁􀁂􀁏􀁏􀁂􀁍􀁔, in which he managed to develop an
analogy of the relationship between heaven, earth, and men. Through his correlative
cosmology and integration of the elements of yin and yang, the five phases and the
principle of dao, he managed to legitimate the power of the emperor, “basically by
conflating the categories of rulership and sagehood” (Adler 2002, 63). This theory
obviously made Confucian teaching particularly attractive to rulers, and the emperor
Wudi was persuaded to establish Confucianism as the state ideology. During the reign
of Wudi the Confucian texts were restored and became the basis of the education of
officials (Roberts 2000, 53).
In the last two decades of the second century, the Han Dynasty experienced
social problems (great disparities in wealth), as well as problems on the frontiers and
inside the government (factional fighting). Additionally, a new form of rebellious
movements, influenced by Daoist ideas, threatened the imperial court (see page 59).
All these aspects weakened the dynasty, which finally came to its end in 220CE. As
Confucianism was very strongly associated with the Han Dynasty, it partly fell with it
(Adler 2002, 66). Confucian principle remained the official philosophy of education
and government, but its influence declined and Confucian philosophy stagnated, as
most Confucian scholars only reproduced old texts and did not further develop the
concepts. Confucian ideas were also more and more threatened by Buddhism, which
was starting to play a significant role in China. A ‘Confucian revival’ came in the
Song Dynasty (960-1279), when in the eleventh century a group of Confucian
scholars tried to win back the term dao for Confucianism. For many years this term
had been entirely utilized by the Daoists and the Buddhists. This group of Confucian
scholars, called the daoxue- (studying the way 􀖡􀿐) scholars, claimed that the dao
was actually the Confucian ‘way of the sages’ (shengdao 􀴼􀖡). Most important
among this group of scholars were Cheng Yi (􀓱􁁊, 1033-1107) and Zhu Xi (􁇫􁧲,
1130 – 1200). Their version of the daoxue-philosophy, called the Cheng Zhu (􀓱􁇫)-
school, later became the orthodox interpretation of Confucianism. From 1313 to 1905,
this school and its system was the basis of the examination system for government
21 Mencius is the Latinized name of Mengzi (􀫔􁈰).
22 This belief was later strongly opposed by Xunzi who parted from the principle that humans were principally bad.
Only through education this bad nature could be suppressed.
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officials. As no one who wanted to occupy an official position in China could escape
the in-depth study of Confucian texts, the importance of Confucian thinking in
Chinese society cannot be neglected. Its influence on Chinese intellectuals was
tremendous, “whether they agreed with it or not” (Adler 2002, 92).
Confucianism as Religious Tradition
We have already discussed the difficulties with the term ‘religion’ and ‘religious’ in
the Chinese context. We touch on the same discussion when asking whether
Confucianism is a religion or a philosophy. Although the Chinese traditionally did not
clearly differentiate between the two, they appear to do so now; in the People’s
Republic of China, Confucianism is officially not a religion but rather a philosophy, a
point of view shared by many Chinese. Nevertheless there are notions in
Confucianism that are in many respects ‘religious’. I will discuss some of these
notions with the hope that this discussion, in addition to the short introduction on the
history of Confucianism above and the more philosophic approach to Confucian
values below, will provide a more complete picture of this tradition.
Although many scholars understand Confucianism as a philosophy occupied only with
worldly matters, there are a certain number of authors that have singled out its
religious content (Fingarette 1972, Ching 1993, De Bary 1995, Thompson 1996,
Tucker 1998). One important notion when looking at the religious dimensions of
Confucianism is the importance of the ritual. Herbert Fingarette points out Confucius’
love and emphasis of the ritual; indeed, rituals are an absolutely essential part of
Confucian teaching. In this he sees a sacred dimension. Confucian teachings helped to
keep alive the cult of ancestor worship and the worship of Heaven, a cult mainly
performed of emperors (see page 54). Sometimes, Confucius’ repeated emphasis on
rituals is understood as a pure love of form, but in the analects we find the following
text, allegedly spoken by Confucius:
“The master said, ‘The gentleman has morality as his basic stuff and by observing the
rites puts it into practice, by being modest gives it expression, and by being
trustworthy in word brings it to completion. Such is a gentleman.” (The Analects
15:18, transl. Lau 1979, 134)
In this citation, we find that rituals are not empty forms but rather methods through
which the real substance (the rightness) can be put into practice. Although it is
definitely true that a major concern of Confucius was how a society should function,
this shouldn’t lead to the conclusion that he did not believe in spirits and heaven;
rather, it just wasn’t his priority to discuss those aspects. He nevertheless did teach
that one should follow the traditional rituals to worship ancestors and heaven, as they
were considered to be part of following the right way.
Confucianism developed its religious aspects, when it became the official state
religion. Many of the essential features of the religion performed by emperors and
officials date back to long before Confucius and the other Confucian philosophers.
Some of the deities worshipped in state religion can even be traced back to the Shang
Dynasty (?1751-?1111) (Thompson 1996, 67). However, as all officials and
bureaucrats had to master the Confucian canon, the religious practice of the officials
was more and more associated with and influenced by Confucian teaching. In state
religion, the emperor personally officiated over the supreme sacrifices and his officials
did the same at a lower level, thus ensuring that the same rituals were performed all
over China.
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Part of the official religion of Confucianism was also the deification of great men, and
in fact Confucius himself soon became a component of this religion, although it might
be said that he himself probably would not have agreed to this practice.
In chapter 2.3, I will explain more detailed certain aspects of state religion and the
idea of the mandate of heaven. At this point it is only important to know that while the
Confucian philosophers, including Confucius himself, were primarily concerned with
the world of men, in its historical development Confucianism was integrated into
concepts of Chinese religion and hence acquired its own religious tradition. This, of
course, was only possible because Confucianism never neglected the importance of
rituals such as ancestor worship. Another reason why it could be rather easily
integrated in a religious context was its cosmological quality. In her article about the
religious dimensions of Confucianism, Mary E. Tucker points out two aspects of
Confucianism that uncover “something of the religious nature of the tradition”
(Tucker 1998, 8). She refers to the term ‘cosmology’ and ‘cultivation’. In
Confucianism, the term ‘cosmology’ explains the workings of the universe, and offers
a meaningful image of the world in general and the role of humans. As we have seen
already when talking about general Chinese concepts, Confucianism parts from the
basic assumption that the whole cosmos is structured in one harmonious way, and that
every part of it must fulfill its duty to keep up this harmony. In this view, every being
and creature is a necessary part of the whole. This provides man with a reason for
existence, and allows him to consider his life as having meaning. The term
“cultivation” in Confucianism emphasizes the necessity to improve one’s character
and morality in order to live up to the demands we are given through our social
position. To fulfill one’s duty, it is necessary to integrate oneself into the cosmic life
system. Below is a citation of the six key assumptions of Confucian cosmology as
described by Tucker:
“1. that the universe is ordered and patterned;
2. at the same time, it is made up of generative, dynamic changes;
3. that transformation in the universe and in the human being are part of an ongoing
continuum;
4. that the human being is the microcosm of the universe in specific and recognizable
ways;
5. that the essence of becoming human is discerning and cultivating that relationship
with the cosmos and with all life forms; and
6. that while this cultivation emphasizes the singularity and special qualities of
human relations, these relations are always dependent on larger patterns of
connections to the cosmos as a whole. Hence, establishing a political ordered of
harmony depends on being in concert with the natural world as well.“
(Tucker 1998, 11)
In this description of the qualities of Confucian cosmology, we can see the role that
personal cultivation plays. This personal cultivation is not a goal of itself, but is
integrated into the larger necessity of upholding the harmony of the whole and
integrate oneself into the cosmological order. If we look only at Confucian philosophy
as a moral system to promote moral behavior and neglect the integration of the moral
cultivation into a wider, world explaining system, we miss an important aspect of
Confucianism.
It was not the goal of this paragraph to define whether or not Confucianism is a
religion. Rather, I wanted to single out and describe the religious aspects of
Confucianism, as they are often neglected in both western and Chinese accounts of
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Confucianism. As we have seen, both the emphasis of the ritual and the integration of
personal moral cultivation into a larger, world explaining cosmology, are clearly
“religious” notions.
Confucian Values
I have listed some of the major Confucian concepts above, namely ren (humanity or
benevolence), li (ritual propriety), xiao (filial piety), or the notion of junzi (the
gentleman). Other important values or, better, ‘virtues’ (to use a more Confucian
term), are the concepts of zhi (􁆩wisdom, smartness), yi (􁁬justice), and xin (􀾐
trustworthiness, reliability). These notions all contain major Confucian values,
emphasized not only by Confucius but by most Confucian writers that followed. I will
now discuss those concepts I consider most important in Confucian teaching.
The first concept I will discuss is li (􀧜), translated as ritual propriety. Originally, li
referred just to the ritual of worshipping ancestors and gods. Later, however, its
meaning was extended to refer to ritualistically proper behavior in all circumstances of
life, spanning from ordinary daily activities to special ceremonies. Confucius himself
contributed to this larger understanding of li, as he emphasized it often in his teaching
and understood it to be a basic characteristic of a (real) human:
“The master said, ‘To return to the observance of the rites (li) through overcoming
the self constitutes benevolence23 (ren).” (Analects 12:1, transl. Lao 1979, 24)
In the analects, it becomes clear that every aspect of life should be carefully shaped in
accordance with li. We could say that Confucian lifestyle therefore becomes its own
“continuing ceremony” (Adler 2002, 34), because in every moment one is aware of
and behaves according to a code of rites, which defines daily life. A very important
aspect of this code of life was the notion of the five relations, already discussed in
point 2.1.2 (page 26). In general, one can say that the hierarchical structure was one
basic principle of right behavior in Confucianism.
An absolutely fundamental aspect of this hierarchical understanding of society is xiao,
filial piety. The meaning of xiao becomes obvious when we look at the Chinese
character for xiao (􀽭). The upper part (􃜓) is the Chinese symbol for “old”, supported
by the underlying symbol for “children” (􁈰). Thus, the character for filial piety in
Chinese shows what it implies; that the young support the old. In the Confucian
Canon we find countless statements about the importance of xiao. Here a few
examples:
“ ‘What does that (xiao) mean?’ The Master said, ‘When your parents are alive,
comply with the rites in serving them; when they die, comply with the rites in burying
them; comply with the rites in sacrificing to them’.”
(Analects 2,5, transl. Lao 1979, 63)
“Mencius said, ‘Of services, which is the greatest? The service of parents is the
greatest. Of charges which is the greatest? The charge of one’s self is the greatest.
That those who do not fail to keep themselves are able to serve their parents is what I
have heard. But I have never heard of any, who, having failed to keep themselves,
were able notwithstanding to serve their parents”(The Writings of Mencius 14, 4,1,
transl. Legge 2004, 75)
23 Here the term ren is translated as “benevolence”. Other translators also used the term “to become humane”.
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“ The master said, ‘In serving his parents his filial son is as reverent as possible to
them while they are living. In taking care of theme he does so with all possible joy;
when they are sick he is extremely anxious about them; when he buries them he is
stricken with grief; when he sacrifices to them he does so with the utmost solemnity.
These five (duties) being discharged in full measure, than he has been able (truly ) to
serve his parents.’ ” (Scripture of filiality X (Hisao Ching), trsl. Legge 1899)
These citations show us the importance of xiao in Chinese Culture. Xiao is one of the
concepts in which li can be put into practice. For instance, one must show proper
behavior to ones parents in order to be absolutely filial. The concept of the five
relationships starts with filial piety, and is considered the most important of all of the
relationships. The concept of xiao is so important in Chinese society that it defines the
position of children in society –as supporters of the older generation. To use the words
of Thompson:
“But whereas we tend to think of this (marriage as an institution for the production
and nurturing of children) in terms of the future of humanity-or at least the future of
our own line- the Chinese tended to think of it as the most important requirement for
the support of the older generation and the generations that had already passed
away.” (Thompson 1996, 37)
This view clearly imposed upon children the duty to devote themselves totally to the
welfare of their parents and ancestors.
After having explained li and its corollary, xiao, both of which emphasize a more
fixed, traditional and even severe approach to life, it is important to introduce another
basic concept of Confucianism that goes at least partly in a different and “softer”
direction. This concept is ren (􀲥). Ren is often translated as “benevolence”, but its
meaning is actually much broader than is implied by this term, and I will therefore use
the Chinese term to refer to this concept. Ren is sometimes listed as one of the
Confucian virtues (among others like li, and xiao), but other authors see it as the most
basic concept of Confucianism. In a Chinese booklet about ren in Confucianism, we
find the following:
“ To summarize, ren is an extremely important concept in the thinking of Kongzi. One
could say that ren sa its philosophy, its worldview, its moral, political, and
educational teaching. In short, it is the general line, unifying his vast and diverse
ideology.” (Zhao; Guo 1990, 19)24
The author Zhao and Guo describe ren as the one concept underlying all Confucian
moral and philosophy. In ren, we can see ethical, emotional, and metaphysical
qualities. If we understand ren as an ethical concept (see Roetz, Xue) it implies
selfless action, charity and living accordance with the Confucian ‘golden rule’: “Do
not impose on others what you yourself do not desire” (The Analects 15, 23, transl.
Lao 1979, 135). By incorporating the golden rule, which was called shu (􀶖􀀊 by
Confucius, into the concept of ren, several authors also stress the importance of being
able to anticipate what others feel and departing from the principle that others have the
same needs as ourselves. Although the term shu is often translated with words such as
reciprocity, fairness and mutuality, the term empathy is probably more adequate, as
24 Original text in Chinese: 􁈹􁆭􀄑􀲥􀖥􀜴􀭑􁄝􀥤􁈰􀶱􀽘􁇏􁂵􀠞􀰃􁇗􁀱􀖥􀖹􀻊􀁢􀥖􁁛􀶪􀲥􀵞􀷰􀖥􁅽􀿐􀄑􀷰􀖥􀵗
􀢸􀜴􀄑􁀹􀵞􀷰􀖥􀩾􀧘􀖡􀖣􀿐􀶪􀄑􁆟􁇍􀿐􀶪􀄑􀢝􁃢􁁂􀤓􀟅􀄑􀵞􀷰􀖥􀲆􀒆􀑰􀕶􀮔􁄖􀖥􀶱􀽘􀸸􀼢􀖥􀁳􁁂􁁛􀜺􁆭􀁴
􀖥􁈹􀛔􀁢􀀉􀀭􀁊􀁕􀁆􀁓􀁂􀁍􀁍􀁚􀀁􀀻􀁉􀁂􀁐 and Guo use the Chinese expression ‘yiyi guanzhi’, meaning ‘’one unity pervades all
things’ to characterize ren.)
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shu does not describe a symmetrical relationship (one party is only passively involved)
(Gu 1999,67).
Ren also has a more emotional meaning that is not necessarily coupled to a moral code.
Mencius, who parts from the principle that man is basically good, describes ren as a
very natural, emotional and affectionate form of loving and caring for others. He gives
us the example of a child about to fall in a well: everybody will try to save that child25.
For Mencius, this is a sort of affectionate love that can be expanded to include all
people, even those we don’t actually like. Mencius believed that ren was not just a
human concept, but rather that the whole cosmic world was unified through this
principle. In this view ren, becomes a method for mankind to integrate itself in the
cosmic harmony. This interpretation clearly emphasizes the metaphysical or religious
dimension of ren.
What is especially interesting about the concept of ren is that, compared to li, it does
not just emphasize acting in accordance with the norms and standards of society, but
actually can be understood as a notion that favors human behavior (love, empathy,
charity, righteousness) over everything else. In the analects, Confucius called three
men true “ren- humans”: Wei, Chi and Pi Gan. All of them opposed the tyrant Zhou.
Wei lost his official position for his opposition, Chi decided to serve as a slave in a
different family, and Pi Gan had to pay with his life. In Confucius’ eyes they all lived
the concept of ren (The Analects, 18,1, transl. Lau 1979, 149).
I consider it important to include this notion when talking about Confucian values- it
shows that in the Confucian value set, we find virtues that not only support
hierarchical society structures and the maintenance of the established order, but also
strive toward the ideal of empathy and love for other human beings. To live up to this
ideal it is sometimes even necessary to oppose the hierarchical structure of society.

Value Settings in Chinese Religious Traditions

Value Settings in Chinese Religious Traditions

Confucianism:
An essential Confucian value concept is li, meaning ritual propriety.
The idea is that by always followsing li, life may become an ongoing ceremony. One
always behaves the way one is supposed to based on ones status and position. An
important aspect of li is the idea of xiao (filial piety), which defines the duties of
children towards the parents. A more extended version this hierarchical relationship is
found in the 5 relationships between sovereign and subject, father and son, husband
and wife, elder and younger brother, elder and younger friends. Although these
relationships are strongly hierarchical, they do not only emphasize duties, but also
responsibilities. Part of li is also the concept of ren (benevolence), which emphasizes
charity, benevolence, love and compassion. This shows that in the Confucian value
set, we also find virtues that strive toward the ideal of empathy and love for other
human beings.
Daoism:
Although Daoism sometimes supports the same values as Confucianism, its
distinct focus on nature provides the Chinese intellectual and religious world with a
different point of view. Whereas Confucian values are very active and often try to
change given condition and ist focused on society, Daoism is focused on nature and
emphasizes non-interfernce (wuwei), spontaneity (ziran), believing that adapting to
the natural environment is the more effective way to harmonize the world.
Buddhism:
Value concepts of Chinese Buddhism were strongly adapted to Chinese
thinking, often meaning a reinterpretation of Buddhist thought. The idea of non-self
was transferred to the idea of ‘no self-existence’, pointing to the importance
relationships: there is no single existence, everything exists only in relationship to the
other.
Popular Religions:
Through its ancestors rites Chinese popular religion strongly
incorporates basic Chinese values, such as the importance of family, family hierarchy
and reciprocal relationship. The fact that popular religion is mainly practiced in
private, and the belief in ghosts, which are often seen as those not playing along the
societal rules, add a private and even individualistic notion to its promoted values.